What construction material was commonly used in the earliest wall sections?

Rammed earth was commonly used in the earliest wall sections of the Great Wall.

Early Chinese states built frontier walls by packing layers of earth and gravel tightly between wooden frames. This technique, often called hangtu, produced strong earthen ramparts from materials available locally. It was especially practical across plains and dry regions, where suitable stone was scarce and transporting heavy building materials would have been difficult.

The earliest walls were not one continuous project. States during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods built separate defensive lines, many of which were later connected or extended. The Qin, Han, and other dynasties continued using rammed earth, while builders adapted their methods to local terrain. In mountainous areas, stone was more readily available and therefore more common.

Brick and dressed stone are strongly associated with the impressive surviving sections near Beijing, but those mostly date from the Ming dynasty, centuries after the first walls. Wood could be used for temporary frames, gates, or supporting structures, yet it was not the main material of the earliest earth ramparts. “Rammed earth” therefore best describes the standard early construction method.