Which treaty, signed in 1648, is commonly associated with ending the Thirty Years’ War?

The Peace of Westphalia, signed in 1648, is commonly associated with ending the Thirty Years’ War.

The settlement consisted mainly of the treaties of Münster and Osnabrück, negotiated in the Holy Roman Empire. The Thirty Years’ War had begun in 1618 and involved religious, dynastic, and political conflicts across central Europe, with major involvement by powers including Sweden, France, Spain, and the Holy Roman Empire.

The agreements recognized territorial changes, addressed religious disputes, and strengthened the position of several German states. They also confirmed the independence of the Dutch Republic and Switzerland from the Holy Roman Empire in the broader settlement.

Textbooks often describe Westphalia as the origin of the modern sovereign-state system. Historians qualify that claim: state sovereignty developed gradually, and the treaties did not create the entire modern international order in one moment.