Which Ayyubid sultan made the 1229 treaty with Frederick II?

Al-Kamil made the 1229 treaty with Frederick II.

Al-Kamil was the Ayyubid sultan of Egypt and nephew of Saladin. In February 1229, during Frederick II’s Sixth Crusade, he concluded the Treaty of Jaffa with the Holy Roman emperor. The agreement ended the immediate conflict through diplomacy rather than a major battle.

Al-Kamil returned Jerusalem, Bethlehem, and a corridor to the Mediterranean coast to the crusader kingdom. Muslim authorities retained the Temple Mount, the Dome of the Rock, and the Aqsa Mosque, while Muslim residents of Jerusalem were allowed to keep their homes and property. The arrangement was set for a ten-year truce.

The treaty became controversial on both sides. Many Christian leaders disliked the concessions and Frederick’s lack of papal authorization, while Muslim chroniclers criticized al-Kamil for surrendering Jerusalem. The agreement is often remembered as an unusual example of negotiation during the Crusades. It should not be confused with Saladin’s diplomacy after the Third Crusade or with the later Mamluk sultan Baibars, who fought the crusader states in the following decades.