What early automobile did Leonardo da Vinci design to move without horses?

Leonardo da Vinci designed a self-propelled cart that could move without horses.

The machine appears in drawings from the late 15th century. It used coiled springs to store energy, much like the mechanism of a clock, and gears transferred that energy to the wheels. A programmable control system based on toothed components helped determine the cart’s movement.

The cart is often called an early automobile, but it did not use an internal-combustion engine. It was closer to a spring-powered mechanical vehicle or an advanced theatrical machine. Its compact design may have been useful for creating moving effects during court performances.

The original mechanism was not fully understood until modern researchers reconstructed it from Leonardo’s drawings. In 2006, a replica was built and demonstrated at the Museo Galileo in Florence. The cart illustrates Leonardo’s skill at combining energy storage, gearing, steering, and automation in one device.