Panama was ruled by General Manuel Noriega until 1989.
Noriega was Panama’s de facto military ruler from 1983 until December 1989. He commanded the Panama Defense Forces and exercised power through civilian presidents rather than serving officially as Panama’s president himself. That distinction explains why some historical accounts call him a dictator or military strongman instead of a head of state.
Noriega had longstanding relationships with United States intelligence agencies, but those ties deteriorated as his government faced allegations involving drug trafficking, political repression and election interference. In May 1989, Panama’s Supreme Court declared the election results invalid after opposition candidate Guillermo Endara was attacked by government supporters.
The United States invaded Panama in December 1989 in Operation Just Cause. Noriega sought refuge in the Vatican diplomatic mission before surrendering to U.S. forces on January 3, 1990. Guillermo Endara then became president, marking the end of Noriega’s rule.